Guide to Scientific Writing

• Text layout
  
  
  • Structure your text so that the content is easily identifiable: parts of the work, sections and subsections, lists, equations, graphs, diagrams, etc.
  • Apply the right font and size.
  • Use the same font throughout the text.
  • Make sure you align and justify the text.
    
    
• Page numbers and title
  
  
  • Add page numbers when you start. The automatic indexing function of your word processor will incorporate these page numbers.
  • We recommend placing the page number at the foot of the page, to the right, and using just one digit, with no dot. Omit the page number on the first page.
  • Include the title of the work in the document header using the automatic function in your word processor. The title is usually left-justified.
  • Use the same font for your title as you have done for the text.
    
    
• Chapters, sections and subsections
  
  
  • Number chapters, sections and subsections.
  • Apply the right font and size.
  • Remember that word processors allow you to mark sections and subsections automatically and to use them to create a table of contents or an index.
    
    
• Lists
  
  
  • Use numbers, letters, bullets, etc. to list items.
  • To differentiate the items from the rest of the text, indent them slightly.
    
    
• Tables, figures, graphs and equations
  
  
  • Place tables, figures, graphs and equations as close as possible to the paragraph in which you refer to them.
  • Centre-justify them.
  • Separate them from the text with a space.
  • Identify them with a number or letter.
  • Remember that word processors allow you to mark tables and figures automatically and to use them to create an index. You can also insert references to these tables and figures in the text.
  • When you are referring to a single figure, use an initial capital letter, e.g. In Figure 1, (…). If you are referring to more than one, use lower case, e.g. In figures 1 and 2, (…)

References

• UPCterm and other technical dictionaries
• Defining terms (Academic Phrasebank, University of Manchester)
• Guidelines for selecting keywords
• Empty nouns

• Numbers
  
  
  • In any part of your work in which numerical data appear in isolation and surrounded by words, they must be written out if they contain three words or fewer, as long as they are not accompanied by a symbol.
  • Decimals: whole numbers and decimal numbers are separated by a dot (not a comma), with no spaces on either side.
  • Thousands: international standards endorse using a thin or non-breaking space to separate thousands from hundreds. A comma is also acceptable, but remember to be consistent throughout the text.

• Exploit repetition. Repetition, particularly of characters in subject position, and constant reference back to previous information give text a sense of unity and focus. 
• Use transitions, the words and phrases that signal relationships between ideas. See examples of transition words and their functions in the table below.
  
  

  Addition		Cause/effect		Sequence
  Also Again Then In addition Moreover		Because Since Thus As a result Therefore		First/In the first place Second/In the second place Third Next Finally
  Contrast		Example		Summary
  In contrast However Although Despite On the other hand		For example For instance By way of example In this case Namely		To conclude To sum up In conclusion In brief In the final analysis

  
  
  
• Move from old information to new. Begin a sentence with familiar information and then go on to add something unfamiliar. This principle goes hand in hand with the principles of characters as subjects and end focus.

• Reduce relative clauses to simpler, shorter constructions. 
• Delete superfluous words and phrases that add nothing to the meaning.
• Avoid expressing the action of a sentence in the form of a noun (nominalisation).
• Use constructions that combine it or there with the verb be (expletive constructions) sparingly.
• Avoid vague attributions (It has been shown that ..., It has been observed that ...). Make a straightforward assertion about generally accepted scientific knowledge rather than a vague attribution.
• Make direct statements and avoid unnecessary introductions to sentences.
• Do not hedge to excess. Common hedges include probably, possibly, perhaps, may, might, apparently, suggest and indicate. Although you may sometimes need to use hedges to moderate the forcefulness of your arguments and to show that you are aware of the limits of your findings, using too many weakens the message.

• Respect your supervisor's or the journal's preferences.
  
  As a researcher, you will adapt your writing style not only to your individual preferences but also to the external requirements dictated by your field of study and your supervisor. If you are given instructions to favour either the active or the passive, follow them. If you are not, follow the principles below.
   
• Use the passive voice to focus on the action.
  
  In many cases readers do not need to know who or what did the action because the focus is on the object of the action or the action itself. The important thing is not that someone did something but that something was done.
  
  
• Favour the passive voice for methods and results.
  
  If you favour the active voice for methods and results, you will focus on the researchers. By using the passive you can change the focus to the materials and procedures used or the results obtained, and also avoid a long list of sentences all beginning with I or We.
  
  
• Use the verb form to organise the sentence content.
  
  As mentioned above, readers find sentences easier to understand if subjects are short and the longer, more complex information is located after the main verb, so your decision on how to express the verb does not depend on your preference for the active or the passive per se but on the position of the verb in the sentence.
  
  
• Use verb forms that keep characters in subject position.
  
  More important than the decision to express the verb in the active or the passive is the decision about what to place in subject position. Readers understand text more easily if writers locate their main characters in the subjects of their verbs and if these subjects are regularly repeated.
  
  
• Use verb forms that facilitate movement from old information to new.
  
  As mentioned above, readers expect the information at the beginning of a sentence to provide a familiar context after which new information will be presented, and they feel confused when a sentence begins with information that is new or unexpected.
  
  
• Use the active with the pronouns I or we. 
  
  Some claim that first-person pronouns should not be used in research writing because they are not objective, but I and we are used in modern scientific writing in certain ways: to refer to the authors' own writing and thinking, and when the authors are main characters in contrast to other researchers. Thus, they are generally found in the introduction of a research article, where authors state their intentions (I will show that ..., We start by ..., I claim that ..., We argue that ..., etc.), or in the discussion and conclusion, where they compare or contrast their work with the work of others.

• Nominal titles
  
  Across all genres, nominal titles are possibly the most common title construction. Being the simplest form of title—essentially, a kind of name label—they are efficient and effective. The following is a typical nominal title:
  
  Determining the Effectiveness of Decontamination with Ionized Hydrogen Peroxide
  
  This type of title is a sentence fragment, not a full sentence; it is based on noun phrases and contains no finite verbs. It is 'indicative' in that it merely indicates what the paper discusses but gives no information about the findings. Good nominal titles are effective because they are specific but also reasonably short. You need to be able to strike a balance between including as much detail as possible while still keeping your title short.
   
• Compound titles
  
  A compound title offers context and then specific details. For example:
  
  Cognition and Alertness in Medical Students: Effects of a Single Night of Partial Sleep Deprivation
  
  The title is still nominal but, unlike the other title above, it is also compound: it consists of two sentence fragments based on noun phrases joined by a colon. It specifies the nature of the study but remains compact. The first phrase gives a general description of the subject, which the second phrase explains in more detail.
  
  
• Full-sentence titles
  
  Studies in some branches of science result in conclusive, evidence-based results. When this is the case, authors may assert their findings in a full-sentence title:
  
  Memantine treatment reduces the incidence of flaccid paralysis in a zika virus mouse model of temporary paralysis with similarities to Guillain-Barré syndrome
  
  Note that the verb is in the present tense and that this underlines the applicability of the result to other cases.
  
  Bear in mind that your title is the single most important phrase in your study, so make sure you give it the time and effort it deserves.
  
  
• Decide which word is the most important and, if possible, place it prominently in initial position.
  
  
• Write a working title early in the research process to focus your efforts; by constantly referring back to it, you can keep your research and your writing on track.
  
  
• Revise and modify it during the research process and only submit a final version once the research is complete.
  
  
• Unless you are instructed otherwise, capitalise the first word of the title and all its nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs; do not capitalise any articles, conjunctions or prepositions. 
  
  
• Write terms out in full and avoid using abbreviations, unless the abbreviation is more readily understandable to readers in your field that the written-out form.
  
  
• Do not finish a title with a full stop.
  

• Abstract
  
  The purpose of an abstract is to quickly and clearly provide an overview of your work, so:
  
  
• Begin with and focus on the most important information.
  
  
• Lead with the hypothesis, question or problem that you have been researching.
  
  
• Do not give details that are not of primary importance and that should be explained elsewhere in the text, not the abstract.
  
  
• Do not define technical terms or explain concepts here. 
  
  
• Write it as a single paragraph. (Abstracts are typically between 200 and 300 words long.)
  
  
• Structure your abstract as follows: background, aim(s), method, results and conclusion.
  
  
• Use verbs in the present tense, reflecting the current significance of your areas of study.
  
  

• Keywords
  
  Keywords play a fundamental role in ensuring that other researchers can find your work. To decide which words and phrases to include in this section:
  
  
• Think about the main topics of your research and which terms you would type into a search box to find it.
  
  
• Include the following: words related to the main field of study, the most frequently used terms in your document, synonyms for some of the main concepts, acronyms and any other term you feel may optimise a keyword search.
  

• Consult Class Talk for advice on improving your oral presentation in the classroom in English.

• Interuniversity Style Guide for Writing End-of-Degree Projects in English
• Tutorial Essays for Science Subjects, Dr Peter Judge, University of Oxford
• Writing for Science Subjects: 10 Characteristics of Scientific Writing, University of Leeds
• Academic Writing, University of Reading
• How to Improve Your Academic Writing, University of Essex
• English for Writing Research Papers, Adrian Wallwork
• Academic Phrasebank, University of Manchester
• Writing For Research, Prof. Patrick Dunleavy, London School of Economics
• Academic Writing in the Sciences, Institute for Academic Development, University of Edinburgh
• Videos on specialised language (Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya)